Music encoding field guide
Documentation review; 2026-11-06Offline edition; v1.0
KRN; MusicXML; MuseScore 4; MEI

Music Encoding Format Comparison.

A practical comparison of musical structure, editorial evidence and the compromises between them. Explore the feature matrix, then open a cell for mechanisms, conditions and sources.

75topics
300assessments
124primary sources

Four different centres of gravity

These are overlapping models, not interchangeable containers. The profiles below are synthesis, not a ranking.

Editorial information has several layers

A bracketed accidental can preserve appearance while losing the source reading, responsible editor or degree of certainty. The matrix treats those as separate requirements.

Inspect editorial support →

Polymetre needs a precise question

Different time signatures can share one bar duration. Independent 3/4 and 4/4 bars at the same quarter-note pulse are a harder problem, with different consequences for each model.

See the boundary example →

Two voices is not a chord-format question

All four can describe polyphony. They differ in voice identity, stream topology, the four-slot limit in MuseScore, and the representation of shared staves and independent durations.

Compare voice models →

Preserve a master and test derivatives

Choose the master for the information you cannot afford to lose. Keep native projects, scholarly encodings, analytical derivatives and approved renderings where each serves a distinct purpose.

Inspect preservation trade-offs →

How to read the badges

Direct

A documented construct or application workflow expresses this feature within the stated scope.

Qualified

Representable, but a significant semantic, structural, profile or implementation condition applies.

Extension

Requires a named dialect, adjacent representation or agreed additional vocabulary.

Workaround

Approximate, reframe or externalise the information; some semantics or convenience are lost.

Unverified

The reviewed evidence does not establish the specific capability; a targeted test is needed.

Evidence boundary: capability judgements are based on documentation or labelled inference. No converter round trips or playback tests were run. “Direct” is not a guarantee that a particular program supports the feature.

The comparison matrix

Search includes the hidden detail notes. Hover for a quick explanation; click or press Enter to keep a cell open.

Visible formats
75 of 75 topicsFilters match any visible format. Counts are not quality scores.

The printed matrix reflects current filters and visible columns. Full source data remains in comparison.json.

FeatureWhat changes between modelsKRNCompact symbolic streamsMusicXMLNotation interchangeMuseScore 4Editable engraving projectMEIScholarly music documents
Model & maintenanceWhat is the primary object?

The design centre predicts which information is natural to preserve.

DirectTime-aligned symbolic streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum coordinates typed spines; **kern supplies a compact musical vocabulary.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectInterchange scoreDetails & sources

Mechanism. MusicXML exchanges score notation and selected performance information between applications.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectEditable application projectDetails & sources

Mechanism. MSCZ/MSCX preserve the score as a MuseScore project, with application-specific editing and presentation state.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectEncoded music documentDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI models musical documents, their interpretation and their documentary context.

Documented; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceVersion and dialect are part of the answer

A filename extension alone does not specify a reproducible interpretation.

QualifiedCore plus named dialectDetails & sources

Mechanism. Separate original **kern from VHV/humlib conventions and other Humdrum representations.

Condition. A signifier can acquire different practical meanings; record the dialect.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectMusicXML 4.0 baselineDetails & sources

Mechanism. This comparison uses the published 4.0 specification, not an evolving editor draft.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedMuseScore 4 familyDetails & sources

Mechanism. Application and file versions differ: the documented 4.6.x family uses native file version 4.60.

Condition. Live handbook claims need checking against the exact installed build.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedMEI 5.1 and customizationDetails & sources

Mechanism. CMN, Mensural, Neumes, All and Basic are distinct schema choices.

Condition. Full MEI capabilities cannot be assumed for MEI Basic.

Documented; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceHow simultaneous events are organised

This changes parsing, editing and comparison algorithms.

DirectAligned recordsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Events align across tab-separated spines; null tokens carry no new event. Split/join operations change spine topology.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectSequential cursorDetails & sources

Mechanism. Durations advance a cursor; backup/forward coordinate voices and staves inside a measure.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedMeasures, voices, score positionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Editing follows a shared measure structure and four voice slots per staff.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectHierarchy plus linksDetails & sources

Mechanism. CMN normally nests measure → staff → layer; control events can target notes through identifiers or timestamps.

Documented; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceStable addresses for notes and annotations

Can an external comment keep pointing to the same musical object after edits?

ExtensionProject conventionDetails & sources

Mechanism. Plain tokens do not provide a universal durable note ID; add identifiers in associated data.

Condition. Line/field offsets change during editing.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedIDs and bookmarksDetails & sources

Mechanism. Optional element IDs and bookmark targets can identify locations.

Condition. Importer preservation and ID stability are separate questions.

Documented; No empirical test

UnverifiedExternal identity unverifiedDetails & sources

Mechanism. No stable public scholarly note-address contract was established from the documentation reviewed.

Condition. Do not use screen position as a durable identifier.

Unverified; No empirical test

Directxml:id and relationshipsDetails & sources

Mechanism. xml:id supports references; corresp, sameas and related links express relationships.

Condition. An editing workflow must preserve identifiers.

Documented; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceAdding a new semantic vocabulary

A file can carry custom data without other programs understanding it.

ExtensionNew spine typesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Define another exclusive interpretation and align its values with the music.

Condition. Document the vocabulary and the programs that understand it.

Documented; No empirical test

ExtensionDefined extension pointsDetails & sources

Mechanism. other-notation and related fields carry additional vocabulary.

Condition. Custom text alone does not establish interoperable semantics.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundMetadata or visual objectsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use project metadata or visible text for project-specific information.

Condition. Arbitrary new native XML elements are not a supported interchange contract.

Inference; No empirical test

ExtensionSchema customizationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Choose or customize a schema for the project.

Condition. Distribute the customization; a generic MEI reader may not implement it.

Documented; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceHuman review and version-control diffs

This is an engineering judgement about the representation, not a file-size benchmark.

QualifiedCompact but topology-sensitiveDetails & sources

Mechanism. Text rows are concise; adding a spine changes many lines and alignment.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedVerbose, structured diffsDetails & sources

Mechanism. XML is reviewable; changed voice order, divisions or layout can create large non-musical diffs.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedPrefer expanded project dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Compressed projects are awkward to diff; inspect XML where available and retain original packages.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedIDs help semantic diffsDetails & sources

Mechanism. XML structure and identifiers support targeted comparison; different valid encodings can still differ substantially.

Inference; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceBibliographic and source metadata

Distinguish a title field from a description of a physical source.

DirectReference recordsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Standard !!! records cover authorship and bibliographic data; project-defined records can supplement them.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedInterchange metadataDetails & sources

Mechanism. identification includes creators, rights, encoding history, source and relations; miscellaneous fields add metadata.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedProject tagsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Project Properties provides descriptive tags, including custom tags; visible title text is a separate object.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectRich source descriptionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. meiHead distinguishes the encoding, work, sources and revision history; source descriptions support bibliographic scholarship.

Documented; No empirical test

Model & maintenanceAssets and reproducible environments

Saving a score is different from preserving every dependency needed to reproduce it.

QualifiedText plus toolchainDetails & sources

Mechanism. Preserve dialect definitions and rendering/conversion versions with the text.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedScore plus rendering choicesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Layout and font defaults are encoded, but omitted defaults are application decisions.

Condition. Keep referenced resources and a reference rendering.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedProject plus fonts and soundsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Rendering fonts and playback sounds/plugins belong to the reproducibility environment.

Condition. A project does not guarantee identical output on another installation.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedDocument plus linked resourcesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Facsimile and recording references can point outside the XML.

Condition. Archive those resources and the schema/rendering profile.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workEditorial accidentals / musica ficta

Encode both the musical alteration and its editorial status.

ExtensionRDF convention in VHVDetails & sources

Mechanism. Declare an editorial-accidental signifier, commonly i, in !!!RDF**kern.

Condition. This is a named convention, not a universal meaning of the letter i.

Profile. VHV / RDF

Documented; No empirical test

DirectEditorial flag and enclosureDetails & sources

Mechanism. accidental separates the printed symbol from pitch alteration; editorial, bracket and parentheses convey its treatment.

Condition. Importer support must be tested.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedAppearance is editableDetails & sources

Mechanism. Accidental/notehead enclosures can mark an intervention visually.

Condition. A bracket does not itself identify an editor, source or conjecture.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectSymbol and intervention modelDetails & sources

Mechanism. accid records accidental information; supplied and responsibility markup can state an editorial intervention.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workSic, interpretation and intervention

Preserve the reason a reading differs from the apparent source.

QualifiedCore editorial signifiersDetails & sources

Mechanism. Original **kern defines Y, x, X and ? for editorial distinctions.

Condition. Modern VHV uses X for forced accidental display; declare conventions before mixing encodings.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedDescriptive editorial levelDetails & sources

Mechanism. level carries editorial status text and enclosure attributes.

Condition. No equivalent typed hierarchy of sic/corr alternatives is supplied here.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundText and visual codingDetails & sources

Mechanism. Explain editorial categories with text, styles or a separate apparatus.

Condition. Readers cannot infer a scholarly ontology from colour or italics.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectTyped editorial wrappersDetails & sources

Mechanism. sic/corr and orig/reg express distinct editorial acts; choice can retain both alternatives.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workMultiple witnesses and alternative readings

Alternatives should remain alternatives, rather than simultaneous performed notes.

QualifiedStrophes / external apparatusDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum strophes can retain alternative versions.

Condition. Witness relationships and reading selection need a documented project model.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundOne reading plus commentaryDetails & sources

Mechanism. Keep the selected score and describe variants in footnotes or linked material.

Condition. An ossia is not a general critical apparatus.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundSeparate readings or ossiasDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use separate scores/staves and an external apparatus for witness comparisons.

Condition. Avoid making every reading sound simultaneously.

Inference; No empirical test

Directapp / lem / rdgDetails & sources

Mechanism. A critical apparatus groups lemma and readings with source attribution.

Condition. A renderer needs a reading-selection policy.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workResponsibility for individual interventions

Who supplied this note, rather than who edited the whole file?

ExtensionComment or associated spineDetails & sources

Mechanism. Attach responsibility using a defined annotation convention; reference records identify contributors at document level.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundEditorial text plus IDsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Associate a note with explanatory level/footnote content or external attribution.

Condition. Use an explicit project convention for machine-readable responsibility.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundExternal or visible attributionDetails & sources

Mechanism. Project creator tags do not establish per-intervention scholarly responsibility.

Workaround. Maintain an apparatus keyed to score locations.

Inference; No empirical test

Directresp referencesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Responsibility attributes can identify the person or agency responsible for an editorial act.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workUncertainty and confidence

An uncertain reading is not simply an invisible or small note.

ExtensionQualify in annotationsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Record confidence in comments or an associated spine under a project convention.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundNarrative confidenceDetails & sources

Mechanism. Explain uncertainty using editorial level/footnote text; retain any numeric model externally.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundAppearance plus explanationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use notation/text for readers and an external record for structured confidence.

Inference; No empirical test

Directcert and confidenceDetails & sources

Mechanism. Editorial markup can carry qualitative certainty and, on applicable elements, numeric confidence.

Condition. Check attribute availability in the selected customization.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workMissing, illegible and supplied material

A lost passage, an unreadable passage and an editorial completion are different claims.

WorkaroundDo not use rests for lossDetails & sources

Mechanism. Represent loss through a declared annotation convention; distinguish musical silence from missing evidence.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundEditorial explanationDetails & sources

Mechanism. A performance rest does not mean a damaged source; explain the gap and any reconstruction separately.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundText and reconstructed scoreDetails & sources

Mechanism. Retain damage information outside the sounding reconstruction or in visible notes.

Inference; No empirical test

Directgap / unclear / suppliedDetails & sources

Mechanism. Different elements distinguish omission, uncertain reading and editorial replacement; attributes qualify extent and cause.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workDeletions, additions and revision layers

Describe changes on the manuscript, not only the editor’s final reading.

ExtensionCustom linked descriptionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Alternative streams and annotations can document revisions under a local model.

Condition. No claim of a standard genetic-editing ontology.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundExternal revision evidenceDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use links or supplementary documentation for manuscript operations.

Condition. Score editing history is not manuscript revision history.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundSeparate evidence recordDetails & sources

Mechanism. Application edits produce a score; document scribal/compositional revisions separately.

Inference; No empirical test

Directadd / del / substDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI distinguishes visible source changes from editorial correction and supports genetic textual work.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workDiplomatic versus normalized views

Keep original and regularized forms together without overwriting the source.

QualifiedAlternatives and conventionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use alternative sections/strophes or documented original/modernized conventions.

Condition. Extraction rules must specify which view is intended.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundSeparate viewsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Store separate score versions or linked originals and explanations.

Condition. A selected appearance alone does not retain both interpretations.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundParallel projects or stavesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Maintain distinct views and document how edits propagate.

Condition. Linked performance parts are not editorial-choice containers.

Inference; No empirical test

Directchoice with orig / regDetails & sources

Mechanism. Retain original and regularized encodings within a choice.

Condition. Rendering/extraction software must choose a branch.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workLink notes to manuscript image regions

A URL to a page is weaker than a coordinate-based relationship to a note.

ExtensionExternal mappingDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use note-address conventions and image-region references in associated metadata.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedLinks, not a facsimile modelDetails & sources

Mechanism. link/bookmark can associate resources and locations.

Condition. Image zones and surface relationships require a project convention.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundExternal alignmentDetails & sources

Mechanism. An image or URL in a project is not a semantic note-to-surface mapping.

Workaround. Keep coordinate and identity mapping externally.

Inference; No empirical test

Directsurface / zone / facsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Define source surfaces and zones; musical elements can reference them with facs.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workMachine-readable annotations and ranges

Distinguish a printed comment from an addressable scholarly assertion.

QualifiedComments and extra dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Local/global comments and typed spines permit annotation; define the target and vocabulary explicitly.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedFootnotes and groupingsDetails & sources

Mechanism. footnote supports printed commentary; grouping/feature supports analysis.

Condition. These are different mechanisms with different consumers.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundText or metadataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use visible comments or an external structured annotation file.

Condition. Score text is not a general annotation graph.

Inference; No empirical test

Directannot with targetsDetails & sources

Mechanism. annot can carry explanation, attribution and links to affected material.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workPhysical source, hands and provenance

A scholarly edition may need to describe an object, not merely cite its title.

QualifiedBibliographic records plus custom dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Reference records identify sources; detailed material description needs additional conventions.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedBasic source citationDetails & sources

Mechanism. identification/source supplies bibliographic context.

Condition. Detailed codicology requires external or project-specific metadata.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundProject metadata and documentsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Keep detailed physical-source and hand descriptions alongside the score.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectStructured source descriptionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI metadata covers physical sources and provenance with detailed source-description structures.

Documented; No empirical test

Sources & editorial workProducing a performable reading from an edition

Retaining alternatives and selecting one for playback are separate operations.

QualifiedExplicit extraction policyDetails & sources

Mechanism. Section and strophe tools can select an interpretation before further processing.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedUsually already selectedDetails & sources

Mechanism. The interchange score generally represents a chosen musical text.

Condition. Preserve the apparatus elsewhere if selecting loses evidence.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedPerformance projectDetails & sources

Mechanism. Create a playing score from the selected reading; keep documentary information outside that reduction.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedSelection is a processing stepDetails & sources

Mechanism. app/choice preserve alternatives; consumers must define which reading becomes the score.

Condition. Schema validity does not determine an editorial policy.

Documented; No empirical test

Voices & stavesTwo independent voices on one stave

Represent independent rhythms and voice identity, not just a chord with opposite stems.

QualifiedSplit a spineDetails & sources

Mechanism. *^ and *v split and join streams; VHV interprets subspines as voices sharing a staff.

Condition. Staff rendering belongs to the consumer’s conventions.

Documented; No empirical test

Directvoice + staff + backupDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use separate voice labels, the same staff number and cursor movement to encode overlapping lines.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectVoice slots 1–4Details & sources

Mechanism. Enter the lines in separate voice slots on the same staff.

Condition. Stem direction alone does not establish a separate voice.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectMultiple layers in one staffDetails & sources

Mechanism. Each voice occupies a layer inside the same staff.

Documented; No empirical test

Voices & stavesMore than four independent voices per stave

A schema-level capability can exceed a notation application’s internal model.

DirectNo four-voice syntax ceilingDetails & sources

Mechanism. Spine splitting is not limited to four branches by the Humdrum syntax.

Condition. Rendering complexity and tool limits remain.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNo four-voice label ceilingDetails & sources

Mechanism. voice contains a string; the format does not prescribe MuseScore’s four slots.

Condition. Destination programs may merge or redistribute voices.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundFour slots per staffDetails & sources

Mechanism. The documented model permits four voices.

Workaround. Use extra staves or reorganise the notation; retain original voice identities separately.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectMultiple layersDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI does not impose a four-layer limit analogous to MuseScore’s voice slots.

Condition. Check the target renderer.

Inference; No empirical test

Voices & stavesTemporary divisi and merging

Preserve continuity through a passage that branches and later rejoins.

DirectExplicit stream topologyDetails & sources

Mechanism. Spine split/join operations describe branching and convergence.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPersistent voice labelsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use voice labels and aligned events; a merge is inferred from subsequent voice use.

Condition. No general voice-lineage graph is implied.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedEnter secondary voices as neededDetails & sources

Mechanism. Voice slots allow local polyphony; staff additions are a separate layout choice.

Condition. Four slots remain the ceiling.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedLayers plus relationshipsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Layers and linking attributes can distinguish musical material and its correspondence.

Condition. Define how lineage should be interpreted.

Inference; No empirical test

Voices & stavesCross-staff notes and beams

Logical voice ownership need not equal the staff on which a note is drawn.

ExtensionRendering conventionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Staff assignment and layout conventions supplement the core stream representation.

Condition. Test cross-staff conversion in the chosen Humdrum renderer.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectPer-note staff assignmentDetails & sources

Mechanism. staff and voice distinguish location from voice identity; beaming is specified separately.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedDraw on neighbouring staffDetails & sources

Mechanism. Cross-staff movement keeps logical ownership on the original staff.

Condition. Moving one note moves the whole chord.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectStaff references and beam relationsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Events can identify a staff independently of their containment; cross-staff beam attributes describe the relation.

Documented; No empirical test

Voices & stavesOne chord split between staves

This is narrower than moving an entire voice to another stave.

UnverifiedTool-specific arrangementDetails & sources

Mechanism. The exact shared-stem, split-chord result was not verified for the selected Humdrum renderer.

Unverified; No empirical test

DirectChord notes carry staff valuesDetails & sources

Mechanism. The notation tutorial demonstrates chord members assigned to different staves.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundSplit into separate voicesDetails & sources

Mechanism. The handbook says individual members of a chord cannot be moved independently across staves.

Workaround. Separate the members into voices and adjust the stems/beams.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPer-note staff informationDetails & sources

Mechanism. The data model provides staff assignment on individual notes.

Condition. Shared-stem rendering and import need a fixture test.

Inference; No empirical test

Voices & stavesSimultaneous notes of unequal duration

Do not silently flatten independently sustained notes into a single uniform chord.

QualifiedUse separate streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Represent independent continuations in subspines rather than relying on a mixed-duration chord token.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedShorter chord members allowedDetails & sources

Mechanism. A chord member may be shorter, but not longer, than the preceding anchor note.

Condition. Separate voices are clearer for independent subsequent motion.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedSeparate voicesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use different voice slots when simultaneous notes have different rhythmic continuations.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedSeparate layers preferredDetails & sources

Mechanism. The chord definition specifies equal duration; use layers for independent durations.

Condition. Do not assume every schema-permitted note attribute defines a supported mixed-duration chord.

Documented; No empirical test

Voices & stavesOssia and alternatives on small staves

An alternate passage is not simply a second part playing at the same time.

QualifiedAlternative streams/sectionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum alternatives can retain alternate passages; engraved ossia treatment is consumer-specific.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedOssia staff typingDetails & sources

Mechanism. staff-details permits staff types, sizes and visibility choices.

Condition. Selection and non-playing behaviour need explicit handling.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundSmall extra staffDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use an additional staff, adjust size and hide unused regions.

Condition. Check playback and part inclusion.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectDedicated ossia modelDetails & sources

Mechanism. CMN includes ossia; it is distinct from the critical apparatus.

Condition. Renderer support varies.

Documented; No empirical test

Voices & stavesLinked score and instrumental parts

Representing a part differs from maintaining synchronised editable views.

QualifiedExtract from streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Part extraction is a transformation of the encoded streams.

Condition. Independent engraving edits need separate management.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedExchange representationsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Score and part data can be exchanged, but the format does not mandate a live linked editing session.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectNative linked part workflowDetails & sources

Mechanism. Custom parts can show selected instruments and voices, with their own styles.

Condition. Exporting the parts is not the same as transferring the native linkage.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedScore/parts and referencesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI can describe score and part structures and their relationships.

Condition. Live synchronisation is an application responsibility.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureDifferent metres over a shared bar span

Example: 18/16 in one staff against 3/4 in another, with coincident barlines.

QualifiedSeparate meter interpretationsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Meter indications can differ by spine; encode durations so synchronisation is explicit.

Condition. Different labels alone do not rescale elapsed time.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedStaff-specific time signaturesDetails & sources

Mechanism. time/@number scopes the signature; actual durations and time modification must express the common span.

Condition. The numerator alone does not determine a tempo ratio.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectLocal time signaturesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Local signatures stretch the notated content into the global bar span, like an invisible tuplet.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedStaff-specific definitionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. staffDef can hold a distinct meter; durations/proportions must establish the intended synchronisation.

Condition. Validate the rendering and temporal interpretation.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureSimultaneous bars of differing lengths

Example: 3/4 and 4/4 at the same quarter-note pulse; barlines meet every 12 quarters.

QualifiedUnion of boundariesDetails & sources

Mechanism. The documented VHV polymeter example inserts barline records at the combined boundaries and uses invisible =- in unaffected spines.

Condition. These extra structural boundaries can affect analysis.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNon-controlling measuresDetails & sources

Mechanism. Partwise measures support non-controlling="yes" for a left boundary not aligned with other parts.

Condition. The flag describes the left boundary. Receiving applications may still force common measure boundaries.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundNo independent bar lengthsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Local time signatures keep the global bar duration.

Workaround. Use a common subdivision grid or longer shared containers, hide unwanted boundaries and draw local barlines where needed. Repair numbering and retain local bar identities separately.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNon-controlling bar structureDetails & sources

Mechanism. barLine/control and measure control distinguish alignment points; part-oriented or unmeasured structures can express independent boundaries.

Condition. On measure, control describes the right boundary. Shared measure containers may need restructuring; renderer support is not assured.

Inference; No empirical test

Time & bar structureIndependent simultaneous tempi

Different printed tempo marks are not proof of independently running clocks.

QualifiedPer-spine tempo metadataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Tandem interpretations can differ across spines.

Condition. Common record alignment still needs a declared temporal interpretation.

Workaround. Use a common time grid or external performance model.

Inference; No empirical test

UnverifiedNotation possible; clocks unverifiedDetails & sources

Mechanism. Tempo directions can be written, but independent concurrent playback clocks were not established.

Workaround. Encode rational ratios on a shared timeline or retain separate performance data.

Unverified; No empirical test

WorkaroundShared playback timelineDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use tuplets and explicit notation for rational ratios; independent clocks need a separate performance workflow.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedMultiple temporal descriptionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Gestural and real-time attributes can describe timing distinct from notation.

Condition. This does not promise polytempo playback in a renderer.

Inference; No empirical test

Time & bar structureUnmeasured or unbarred music

Removing visible barlines is different from removing a measure-based data model.

DirectNo mandatory visible barsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Event streams can omit barlines; durations remain available for analysis.

Documented; No empirical test

Qualifiedsenza-misura; measure containers remainDetails & sources

Mechanism. A time element may specify senza-misura.

Condition. Music still lives in measure containers; choose boundaries deliberately.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundHidden boundaries or long measuresDetails & sources

Mechanism. Hide signatures/barlines, or create irregular measures.

Condition. The score still behaves as measures internally.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectUnmeasured structuresDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI supports music organised without CMN measure containers, including historical repertoires.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structurePickups and incomplete / overfull bars

Nominal metre, actual duration and displayed numbering should stay distinct.

QualifiedEncode actual eventsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Durations and bar markers are explicit; metre-conformance checks remain separate.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectImplicit measure plus durationsDetails & sources

Mechanism. implicit can suppress the measure number; encoded events determine content rather than the printed number alone.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectActual versus nominal durationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Measure properties allow an actual duration differing from the time signature.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectMetrical conformance metadataDetails & sources

Mechanism. metcon identifies whether a measure conforms to the prevailing metre.

Condition. It does not by itself supply the missing duration.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureAdditive and composite time signatures

A display such as 3+2/8 or 2/4+3/8 should not obscure the duration model.

QualifiedMeter versus displayed symbolDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use meter interpretations and supported display conventions.

Condition. Distinguish computational metre from its visual spelling.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectRepeated beats/beat-type pairsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Additive numerators and multiple beat units have explicit encodings.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedCustom displayed signaturesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Time-signature properties control display and beaming.

Condition. Unusual denominators and exact playback should be tested in the chosen build.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectMeter definitions and groupsDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI meter counts permit expressions; grouped signatures extend the notation model.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureNested and complex tuplets

The sounding ratio and the visible bracket hierarchy are separate information.

QualifiedDuration plus styling conventionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Reciprocal durations express timing; VHV adds controls for displayed tuplets.

Condition. Do not assume bracket hierarchy is recoverable from duration alone.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectRatio plus notation hierarchyDetails & sources

Mechanism. time-modification gives cumulative scaling; tuplet describes the displayed and nested structure.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectCustom and nested tupletsDetails & sources

Mechanism. The editor supports user-defined ratios and nested groups.

Condition. Test unusual ratios during interchange.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectTuplet containers and spansDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI offers tuplet grouping and span-based descriptions.

Condition. Use the appropriate construction for containment and overlap.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureTuplets spanning barlines

A duration ratio may be representable even when an editor cannot keep one bracket across a bar.

UnverifiedExact round trip unverifiedDetails & sources

Mechanism. Rhythmic values can continue across bar markers; preservation of one cross-bar tuplet object was not verified.

Unverified; No empirical test

QualifiedStart/stop tuplet notationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Tuplet start/stop markers are not a nested measure container.

Condition. Cross-bar rendering and import require a test.

Inference; No empirical test

UnverifiedBuild-specific test requiredDetails & sources

Mechanism. The handbook documents nesting but does not establish arbitrary cross-bar tuplets.

Workaround. Consider a longer measure with visual subdivision, documenting the structural compromise.

Unverified; No empirical test

DirecttupletSpanDetails & sources

Mechanism. The dedicated span element explicitly targets tuplets extending across barlines.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureGrace-note timing versus written value

Grace-note appearance does not uniquely determine the performance duration.

QualifiedGrace signifiersDetails & sources

Mechanism. Core **kern distinguishes grace material; exact realised timing needs additional performance information.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectExplicit timing optionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. grace offers make-time and percentages stolen from preceding or following notes.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedAttached grace groupsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Before/after grace notes attach to a main note and do not count towards the measure.

Condition. Playback is an engine interpretation, not a complete performance transcript.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNotated and gestural timingDetails & sources

Mechanism. grace and grace.time distinguish grace treatment; gestural timing can supplement the written duration.

Documented; No empirical test

Time & bar structureRepeats, endings and performed order

A compact written score and an expanded performance sequence are different representations.

DirectSections and expansion listsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum sections and expansion mechanisms can specify performance order.

Condition. Preserve the compact source when making an expanded derivative.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNotation plus playback instructionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Barline/ending notation and sound jump attributes serve related but distinct purposes.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedApplication playback interpretationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Repeats are part of the score workflow; intricate jumps should be checked by listening and export.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedWritten structure and expansionDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI supports structural sections and expansion mechanisms.

Condition. Realised order depends on a processing policy.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningWritten versus sounding pitch

Transposing parts can preserve spelling while using different pitch coordinates.

DirectSounding pitch baselineDetails & sources

Mechanism. **kern records sounding pitch; *ITr describes how to produce a transposed written part.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectWritten pitch plus transposeDetails & sources

Mechanism. transpose specifies the interval added to written pitch to obtain sounding pitch.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectConcert/transposed displayDetails & sources

Mechanism. The application provides concert-pitch and transposed views.

Condition. Keep instrument transposition distinct from actually transposing the notes.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectWritten and gestural informationDetails & sources

Mechanism. staffDef transposition and note gestural attributes distinguish written and sounding descriptions.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningPrinted accidental versus effective pitch

A sharp in the encoding does not necessarily mean a printed sharp symbol.

QualifiedPitch explicit; display derivedDetails & sources

Mechanism. Every pitch carries its alteration; VHV computes visibility, with X/y display controls.

Condition. Suppressing a symbol must not erase its pitch alteration.

Documented; No empirical test

Directalter versus accidentalDetails & sources

Mechanism. Pitch alteration and the actual printed accidental are distinct elements.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNotation and playback propertiesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Notation controls coexist with playback tuning and note properties.

Condition. Verify cautionary-symbol import separately from sounding pitch.

Inference; No empirical test

Directaccid versus accid.gesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Written and gestural inflections can differ.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningMicrotonal pitch and accidental glyphs

A quarter-tone glyph, an exact pitch and its playback are three separate tests.

ExtensionUse other pitch spinesDetails & sources

Mechanism. **cents can express fractional-semitone values alongside **kern.

Condition. That is Humdrum extensibility, not native microtonal **kern spelling.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectDecimal semitone alterationDetails & sources

Mechanism. alter permits decimal values; the accidental vocabulary supplies notational symbols.

Condition. Playback and uncommon glyph support vary.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedSymbols plus cents tuningDetails & sources

Mechanism. Note properties offer playback tuning in cents.

Condition. Sound-engine behaviour is version-dependent and untested here; do not infer it from the symbol.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNotated and gestural pitchDetails & sources

Mechanism. Accidental vocabularies and gestural pitch support distinctions beyond ordinary semitone notation.

Condition. Exact tuning and glyph rendering depend on profile and consumer.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningTemperament and exact frequency

A note name alone does not determine a frequency without a tuning model.

ExtensionFrequency or cents streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. **freq explicitly encodes hertz; it can coexist with symbolic notation.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedExplicit altered pitchesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Decimal alterations encode offsets, but a general temperament system is not supplied by that field alone.

Workaround. Document the tuning reference and conversion rules.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedPer-note tuning workflowDetails & sources

Mechanism. Cents adjustments can implement a tuning in compatible playback setups.

Condition. Retain tuning assumptions and test the sound engine.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedTuning metadataDetails & sources

Mechanism. staffDef includes tune.Hz, tune.pname and tune.temper.

Condition. The consumer must implement the specified tuning.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningNonstandard and local key signatures

A key signature is neither the same as a tonal analysis nor a complete tuning system.

QualifiedExplicit signature and key contextDetails & sources

Mechanism. **kern separates key-signature interpretation from key designation.

Condition. Unusual glyph placement is a rendering matter.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectTraditional and nontraditional keysDetails & sources

Mechanism. key supports both conventional fifths and explicit altered steps, with staff scoping.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedCustom/local signaturesDetails & sources

Mechanism. The editor supports customised key signatures and local application.

Condition. Check nonstandard accidentals against playback and export.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectExplicit key signature elementsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Nonstandard signatures use keySig rather than only a conventional signature abbreviation.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningScordatura, string tuning and capo

Preserve the distinction between sounding pitch, fingering and notated string instructions.

ExtensionTablature-related representationsDetails & sources

Mechanism. **fret and associated tuning interpretations describe fretted instruments.

Condition. This extends beyond core **kern.

Documented; No empirical test

Directscordatura and staff tuningDetails & sources

Mechanism. scordatura/accord describe altered strings; staff-details carries tuning and capo information.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedString-tuning changesDetails & sources

Mechanism. From 4.2, tuning instructions affect a staff and linked staves from their measure onward.

Condition. Check written scordatura conventions separately.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectCourses, strings and tuningDetails & sources

Mechanism. Tablature distinguishes notated courses from physical strings and describes their tuning.

Documented; No empirical test

Pitch & tuningUnpitched percussion and display position

A note’s height on the staff need not represent a sounding pitch.

ExtensionVHV percussion conventionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum rendering uses percussion conventions for pitch, head shape and instrument interpretation.

Condition. Do not treat staff position as an ordinary tonal pitch.

Profile. VHV

Documented; No empirical test

Directunpitched coordinatesDetails & sources

Mechanism. unpitched uses display-step/display-octave; instrument information supplies the playback identity.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedInstrument-specific setupDetails & sources

Mechanism. Percussion notation relies on the configured instrument and staff model.

Condition. A decorative percussion glyph alone has no playback semantics.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedNotation and instrument dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Staff location and instrument/performance information can be encoded separately.

Condition. Check percussion mappings in the consumer.

Inference; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireMensural notation as a semantic system

A mensuration sign can govern duration rather than merely decorate a modern time signature.

ExtensionUse **mens, not **kernDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum has a separate **mens representation for mensural signs, durations and related features.

Condition. Label this as an adjacent representation, not a core KRN capability.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundModern transcription / symbolsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use modern durations and visual approximations, retaining mensural interpretation externally.

Condition. A historical glyph does not introduce mensural duration semantics.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundDisplay substitutionDetails & sources

Mechanism. The handbook describes mensural signs as display-only substitutions over conventional metre.

Condition. They do not change the duration ratios between note values.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectDedicated mensural moduleDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI models mensuration, proportion and context-sensitive duration distinctions.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireLigatures, coloration and perfection

Historical grouping and duration qualification should survive modern transcription.

Extension**mens vocabularyDetails & sources

Mechanism. The separate mensural representation includes ligatures, coloration and duration qualifications.

Documented; No empirical test

WorkaroundModern equivalents plus annotationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Retain the historical interpretation in supplemental data if exchanging a modernised score.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundVisual reconstructionDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use symbols or a modern transcription with commentary.

Condition. Do not claim a native mensural semantic model.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectHistorical encoding vocabularyDetails & sources

Mechanism. The mensural module distinguishes notation signs and interpreted durations.

Condition. Not all renderers infer duration from context.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireNeumes and chant structure

A modern pitch transcription may discard neume grouping and textual organisation.

WorkaroundTranscribe pitches; add groupingDetails & sources

Mechanism. Core **kern is not a dedicated neume vocabulary.

Workaround. Keep grouping and source signs in supplemental data.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundVisual or modern transcriptionDetails & sources

Mechanism. Generic extensions can retain labels/glyphs but do not establish a neume model.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundSymbols and unbarred appearanceDetails & sources

Mechanism. Hide conventional bars and use symbols as needed.

Condition. The underlying structure remains a notation-editor score.

Inference; No empirical test

Directsyllable / neume / ncDetails & sources

Mechanism. The neumes module organises chant around syllables and neume components.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireGuitar and historical lute tablature

String/course assignment can contain information not recoverable from pitch alone.

Extension**fret / associated dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum provides a separate fret representation; core **kern alone does not preserve every fingering.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedStrings, frets and staff tuningDetails & sources

Mechanism. Tablature information is supported; staff-details includes letter/number fret presentation.

Condition. Historical idioms require specific interoperability tests.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectTablature and linked stavesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Create tab staves, including links to standard notation.

Condition. Check whether a particular historical tab style is supported.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNamed tablature typesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI describes guitar and Italian, French and German lute tablatures.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireFigured bass with changing figures

Figures changing during a sustained note need their own temporal placement.

ExtensionDedicated associated spinesDetails & sources

Mechanism. VHV documents figured-bass encodings independent of the **kern notes.

Profile. VHV

Documented; No empirical test

Directfigured-bass with durationDetails & sources

Mechanism. A duration permits figure changes beneath one note; figures retain vertical order.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectFigured-bass objectsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Specialised entry parses and aligns figures and continuations.

Condition. This is more semantic than typing ordinary text.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectHarmony / figured-bass structuresDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI harmonic markup distinguishes figures from note events.

Condition. Realising a continuo accompaniment is another operation.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireChord symbols, Roman numerals and analysis

A sounding chord, a printed chord name and an analytical assertion are different objects.

Extension**harm and analysis spinesDetails & sources

Mechanism. **harm models functional harmony; other typed spines can record other analyses.

Documented; No empirical test

Directharmony with root or numeralDetails & sources

Mechanism. MusicXML 4.0 supports chord roots, scale-degree numerals and stacked functional relationships.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedChord / RNA / Nashville entryDetails & sources

Mechanism. Dedicated modes parse chord labels; formatting and playback depend on the kind of symbol.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectAnalysis attributes and harmonyDetails & sources

Mechanism. Harmonic and analytical information can coexist with the score and linking relationships.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireLyrics, verses, elision and melisma

Text may be attached to notes or maintained as a separate aligned stream.

ExtensionSeparate text spinesDetails & sources

Mechanism. **text and **silbe support word/syllable-oriented lyrics alongside the music.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNote-attached lyric elementsDetails & sources

Mechanism. lyric includes syllabic division, elision and extension, with verse identifiers.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectLyric objectsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Syllabic entry supports extension lines and multiple lyric lines.

Condition. Keep independent text editions outside a purely graphical lyric layout.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectTwo underlay approachesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Syllables can be encoded within notes or separately and linked to the music.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireTies, slurs and analytical phrases

Identical-looking curves can assert different musical relationships.

DirectDistinct signifier familiesDetails & sources

Mechanism. **kern separates ties, slurs and phrases; it does not simply record an uninterpreted curved line.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedTie sound versus drawn tieDetails & sources

Mechanism. tie and tied distinguish sound from appearance; analytical grouping is separate.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedSemantic elements versus drawingsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use functional notation objects when possible.

Condition. A decorative symbol or line does not establish the intended musical relation.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectSeparate relationship elementsDetails & sources

Mechanism. phrase is available alongside tie and slur, including control of its shape and endpoints.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireNew symbols and graphical notation

Being able to display a glyph is weaker than knowing what it means.

ExtensionDeclared signifiers or dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Custom representations can carry new meaning; renderer-specific layout must be supplied separately.

Inference; No empirical test

Qualifiedother-notation and SMuFLDetails & sources

Mechanism. SMuFL-named symbols can be identified; unrestricted custom content does not guarantee interoperability.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedDisplay-only palette itemsDetails & sources

Mechanism. The Symbols palette contains non-functional graphical items.

Condition. They have no effect beyond appearance.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedsymbolDef / altsymDetails & sources

Mechanism. User-defined symbols and references can preserve visual information.

Condition. A custom symbol still needs a semantic definition and a capable renderer.

Documented; No empirical test

Notation & repertoireFretboard diagrams versus tablature

A static chord diagram is not a time-ordered sequence of string events.

WorkaroundExternal or renderer conventionDetails & sources

Mechanism. **fret describes performance positions; preserve a static diagram separately if required.

Inference; No empirical test

Directframe elementDetails & sources

Mechanism. frame represents a fretboard diagram associated with a harmony.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNotation application objectsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Fretboard-diagram workflows accompany guitar notation.

Condition. Exact diagram interchange was not tested.

Inference; No empirical test

UnverifiedExact diagram interchange unverifiedDetails & sources

Mechanism. Tablature covers course/string information; equivalent static diagram handling needs a selected profile and tool.

Unverified; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationPage/system breaks and spacing

Encoding a break does not guarantee identical pagination in another engine.

ExtensionRenderer layout conventionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. VHV rendering conventions supplement the symbolic stream.

Condition. Core **kern is not a page-layout language.

Inference; No empirical test

Qualifiedprint and layout defaultsDetails & sources

Mechanism. print supplies local page/system/staff parameters; defaults supplies score-wide choices.

Condition. Engravers may calculate different spacing.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNative layout controlsDetails & sources

Mechanism. System breaks and spacing controls are retained in the project.

Condition. Interchange may recalculate the result.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedBreaks and layout attributesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI offers layout descriptions; rendering remains a separate process.

Condition. Source breaks and desired output breaks should be distinguished.

Documented; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationExact visual reproduction

Preserving musical meaning is not a promise of pixel-identical output.

QualifiedKeep a reference renderingDetails & sources

Mechanism. The notation output depends on the selected rendering conventions and implementation.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedLayout hints, not fixed artworkDetails & sources

Mechanism. Applications may reflow even when importing page/system breaks.

Condition. Archive PDF/SVG for the approved appearance.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedBest within matched environmentDetails & sources

Mechanism. Native controls preserve intent; fonts and application changes can alter output.

Workaround. Keep a rendered reference and record the application build.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedLogical score or source facsimileDetails & sources

Mechanism. Facsimiles preserve source images; semantic encoding alone does not fix all rendering choices.

Documented; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationMusic fonts, glyph identity and fallbacks

The same glyph identifier may have different metrics or visual forms.

ExtensionConsumer-selected fontDetails & sources

Mechanism. Core stream semantics do not dictate a music-font implementation.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedFont defaults and SMuFL namesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Font defaults and glyph identifiers carry appearance preferences.

Condition. Installed fonts and fallbacks still affect rendering.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectSMuFL fontsDetails & sources

Mechanism. MuseScore 4.6 introduced loading any compatible SMuFL music font; fallback glyphs may be used.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedGlyph and symbol referencesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI records glyph authorities/names and custom symbols where applicable.

Condition. Preserve the resource and font environment.

Documented; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationHidden, cue-sized and small material

Invisible notation can still affect time, playback and spacing.

QualifiedInvisible core signsDetails & sources

Mechanism. y can identify logically present but unprinted material; styling conventions add cue treatment.

Condition. Visibility and silence must not be conflated.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectIndependent print/play controlsDetails & sources

Mechanism. note includes print and playback-related properties; cue notes have specific structural rules.

Condition. Test cue playback rather than relying on size alone.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedVisibility and staff controlsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Staves can be hidden when empty or selectively shown.

Condition. Hidden does not automatically mean removed from every part or playback context.

Documented; No empirical test

Qualifiedcue / visible and staff scalingDetails & sources

Mechanism. Visibility and cue properties are available in the notation model.

Condition. Some visibility definitions address aural as well as graphical rendering; check the consumer.

Documented; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationBeam grouping, feathering and cross-bar beams

Grouping, geometry and realised acceleration should be evaluated separately.

QualifiedCore beams plus conventionsDetails & sources

Mechanism. **kern records beaming; detailed placement and uncommon beam forms require renderer conventions.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectBeam levels and fan directionDetails & sources

Mechanism. beam records grouping and feathering direction; it does not alone define a performed accelerando curve.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectGrouping and shape controlsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Beaming can override time-signature defaults; appearance is adjustable.

Condition. Check feathered playback separately.

Documented; No empirical test

Directbeam and beamSpanDetails & sources

Mechanism. Spanning beams can be encoded across barlines without forcing simple tree containment.

Documented; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationSpanner endpoints, curvature and open ties

A curve’s visual endpoint may differ from its musical or performance target.

QualifiedSymbolic boundaries firstDetails & sources

Mechanism. Core slur/tie signifiers carry relationships; fine geometry needs added conventions.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNotated ties with geometryDetails & sources

Mechanism. tied supports drawn ties, including let-ring and ties attached to one note.

Condition. A sound tie is a separate element.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNative editing; export test neededDetails & sources

Mechanism. Application-specific appearance controls may require adjustment after interchange.

Condition. Verify both anchors and shape in the target.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectTargeted spans and curve shapeDetails & sources

Mechanism. Control events can carry endpoints and Bezier/bulge descriptions.

Condition. A renderer may not implement all geometry.

Documented; No empirical test

Engraving & presentationIndependent layout of extracted parts

Part layout is not simply a cropped view of the full score.

WorkaroundSeparate rendering configurationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Extract streams and maintain part-specific layout settings alongside them.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedExchange part-specific filesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Individual part exports can carry their own layout.

Condition. Live linkage to the full-score project is not mandated.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectNative part stylesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Parts can receive independent styles and layout treatment within the project.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPart documents / relationshipsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Part structures and linking can retain relationships; layout policy belongs to the rendering workflow.

Inference; No empirical test

PerformancePerformed onset, duration and velocity

A notation file and a measured performance transcript answer different questions.

ExtensionAssociated **MIDI dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum can carry performance events alongside **kern; note-on/off data is a separate representation.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectNote performance attributesDetails & sources

Mechanism. attack, release and dynamics can qualify the performance of a notated note.

Condition. Not every player consumes these fields.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPlayback propertiesDetails & sources

Mechanism. The project includes playback controls, but it is not a full performance-analysis interchange model.

Condition. Supported controls vary by sound engine.

Inference; No empirical test

DirectGestural and real-time valuesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI offers performed duration, real-time timestamps and velocity-related data alongside notation.

Documented; No empirical test

PerformanceOrnament sign versus realised notes

One trill sign can admit several historically plausible performances.

QualifiedSymbolic ornament codesDetails & sources

Mechanism. **kern encodes ornament signs; a realised performance needs extra events/data.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNotation and playback layersDetails & sources

Mechanism. Sound-oriented information can accompany notation, but a symbol does not specify a unique realisation.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedEngine realisationDetails & sources

Mechanism. Ornaments have application playback settings and behaviours.

Condition. Preserve an explicit realisation separately if exact notes are required.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedKeep interpretations distinctDetails & sources

Mechanism. Notated material and an expanded/gestural reading can be recorded separately.

Condition. Consumer policy determines which representation is played.

Inference; No empirical test

PerformanceDynamics affecting one voice on a shared stave

The position of a dynamic does not reliably identify its playback scope.

ExtensionAssociated dynamics streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. **dyn / **dynam distinguish notated and interpreted dynamics.

Condition. Specify how the stream associates with musical voices.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedDirection voice assignmentDetails & sources

Mechanism. direction can include voice; scope and actual playback should be checked in the recipient.

Condition. A printed placement is not a voice selector.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectVoice assignment controlsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Dynamics can target a specific voice, all voices on a staff, or the instrument.

Condition. This capability belongs to later MuseScore 4 builds, not every 4.x release.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectLayer/staff targetingDetails & sources

Mechanism. dynam carries layer, staff and event/timestamp references.

Condition. Targeted encoding does not promise per-layer playback in every tool.

Documented; No empirical test

PerformancePedal notation versus continuous control

A Ped. line is not a sampled half-pedal trajectory.

ExtensionPerformance stream for controllersDetails & sources

Mechanism. Keep continuous/controller data in a suitable associated performance representation.

Condition. Core **kern alone is not that controller stream.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedNotation and sound controlsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Playback parameters are distinct from graphical directions.

Condition. Do not assume the format substitutes for arbitrary DAW automation.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedPedal objects and playbackDetails & sources

Mechanism. Pedal lines/symbols have engraving controls; playback depends on the instrument and engine.

Condition. Continuous half-pedal fidelity was not tested.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNotation plus performance dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI can supplement the score with performance information.

Condition. Consumer support for continuous control must be established.

Inference; No empirical test

PerformanceAlign the score with an audio/video recording

A recording link alone does not identify the moment corresponding to a note.

ExtensionAssociated timing dataDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum’s sound-analysis workflow can coexist with custom alignment streams.

Condition. Document the event-address and time-unit convention.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundExternal alignment modelDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use linked resources plus a separate mapping of score events to recording times.

Condition. Generic links are not a rich recording-alignment model.

Inference; No empirical test

WorkaroundExternal annotation workflowDetails & sources

Mechanism. Exported audio/video is a rendering, not a general alignment of an independently recorded performance.

Inference; No empirical test

Directperformance / recording / whenDetails & sources

Mechanism. Performance structures and temporal references support alignment with recordings.

Documented; No empirical test

PerformanceVirtual instruments, effects and mixer state

Preserve a production setup separately from portable score semantics.

ExtensionExternal synthesis workflowDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum can generate synthesis/performance data; a plugin rack is outside core **kern.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPortable playback parametersDetails & sources

Mechanism. sound/play carry instrument and technique information, not a universal plugin-host project.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectApplication mixer and soundsDetails & sources

Mechanism. The mixer selects SoundFonts, VST instruments or MuseSounds and supports effects.

Condition. Required sounds/plugins must be available in the target environment.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPerformance descriptionDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI can describe performance data and recordings; it is not a standard VST host-session package.

Inference; No empirical test

Interchange & researchSyntax, schema and musical validation

A valid file can still encode the wrong music or lose the intended interpretation.

QualifiedLayered checkingDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use syntax/representation checks plus musical and source review.

Condition. There is no single check that proves the transcription correct.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedXSD plus semantic checksDetails & sources

Mechanism. The published schema checks structure and types.

Condition. It cannot prove voicing, rhythmic intention or successful interchange.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedApplication acceptanceDetails & sources

Mechanism. Opening in the intended build is a practical compatibility check.

Condition. No independent comprehensive native-format validator was established here.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedSelected schema and project rulesDetails & sources

Mechanism. Validate against the declared MEI customization, then verify musical and editorial constraints.

Condition. Schema validity is not renderer compatibility.

Documented; No empirical test

Interchange & researchPreservation of unfamiliar data

An importer may successfully open a file while discarding information it does not model.

QualifiedKeep the source streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Transformations may select or replace spines; retain custom-data definitions and original input.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedTest every extensionDetails & sources

Mechanism. other-notation explicitly permits non-interoperable extensions.

Condition. A valid custom field is not a retention guarantee.

Documented; No empirical test

UnverifiedNo arbitrary XML retention promiseDetails & sources

Mechanism. The reviewed documentation does not establish preservation of unknown native elements or all imported editorial fields.

Unverified; No empirical test

QualifiedProfile-aware processing requiredDetails & sources

Mechanism. Software targeting a subset may ignore full-MEI information.

Condition. Keep a master document and check exported content.

Inference; No empirical test

Interchange & researchRound-trip fidelity

A→B→A should compare semantics, appearance and playback separately.

QualifiedConversion is profile-dependentDetails & sources

Mechanism. Pitch and structural conventions can change during conversion; written/sounding conversion is explicit in VHV.

Condition. Check annotations and stream relationships as well as notes.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedPractical interchange; not lossless guaranteeDetails & sources

Mechanism. MuseScore’s handbook warns that layout cleanup is commonly required after MusicXML transfer.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedRetain native masterDetails & sources

Mechanism. Use native projects for continuing application work and exports as derivatives.

Condition. MusicXML/MEI exports are not complete backups of the project.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedRichness exceeds many consumersDetails & sources

Mechanism. Basic and repertoire customizations differ from full MEI.

Condition. A successful score import need not preserve apparatus or facsimile relationships.

Inference; No empirical test

Interchange & researchBatch conversion and automation

Automation availability is a tool ecosystem property, not an intrinsic file-format guarantee.

DirectComposable command-line toolsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum tools support selection, transformation, analysis and conversions.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedXML processing ecosystemDetails & sources

Mechanism. Standard XML tooling can transform/inspect MusicXML; musical conversion needs a music-aware library.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedCommand-line conversionDetails & sources

Mechanism. MuseScore documents export and batch conversion options.

Condition. The page warns that some content was copied from the version 3 manual; test the exact build.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedXML and schema-based workflowsDetails & sources

Mechanism. XML tooling supports queries and transformations; musical semantics require profile-aware processing.

Inference; No empirical test

Interchange & researchCorpus analysis and aligned derived features

The cost of extracting a usable event stream differs substantially.

DirectAnalysis-oriented streamsDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum provides interval, rhythm, harmony and pattern-analysis workflows with aligned derived representations.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedNormalise before analysisDetails & sources

Mechanism. Reconstruct timing from the cursor, voice labels and durations before comparing events.

Condition. File order is not simply onset order.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedExport or inspect native modelDetails & sources

Mechanism. A notation editor project is less direct as a portable analytical table.

Workaround. Export a suitable symbolic representation, checking the required distinctions.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedRich semantics; selection neededDetails & sources

Mechanism. Analysis markup is available; choose apparatus branches and temporal interpretations before calculating statistics.

Inference; No empirical test

Interchange & researchChoosing a preservation master

The preferred master depends on which losses would be unacceptable.

QualifiedCompact analytical masterDetails & sources

Mechanism. Useful for stream-based research when conventions and companion data are preserved.

Condition. Retain sources and reference renderings.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedPortable score derivativeDetails & sources

Mechanism. Useful for broad notation interchange; test the features your project depends on.

Condition. Keep native or scholarly masters where they contain additional information.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedApplication masterDetails & sources

Mechanism. Keep the native project for editing in MuseScore and archive a documented environment.

Condition. Also retain portable exports and approved output.

Inference; No empirical test

QualifiedScholarly document masterDetails & sources

Mechanism. Useful when source relationships, variants and editorial acts are first-class requirements.

Condition. Preserve schema customizations and linked assets.

Inference; No empirical test

Interchange & researchSerialization and packaging

Compression changes packaging, not the underlying musical expressivity.

DirectPlain structured textDetails & sources

Mechanism. Humdrum is line/field-oriented text with typed spines and record classes.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectXML or MXL ZIP packageDetails & sources

Mechanism. MXL uses a ZIP container and META-INF/container.xml to identify the score root and alternate renditions.

Documented; No empirical test

QualifiedMSCZ / MSCX native filesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MuseScore’s native project formats differ from MusicXML even though XML is involved.

Condition. Preserve the original package and associated resources.

Documented; No empirical test

DirectXML plus linked resourcesDetails & sources

Mechanism. MEI is XML; associated images and recordings may be separate resources.

Condition. A .mei suffix alone does not specify the customization.

Documented; No empirical test

All music-software behaviour is documentation-based, inferred or unverified. Open a cell for its evidence label. Search is case-insensitive and matches all entered words within the row.

Three cases that reveal the model

Original illustrations and fragments. Fragments are explanatory, not validated complete interchange files.

Worked comparison

An editorial sharp with a responsible editor

A displayed bracket is only the beginning.

Suppose a manuscript has an F, and an editor proposes F-sharp for performance. Preserve the proposed pitch, the absence of the accidental in the source, who supplied it, and the reason. Do not confuse an editorial sharp with a courtesy sharp.

  1. KRN: in a VHV profile, declare an RDF editorial-accidental signifier. Add a separate responsibility/comment convention if that information must be queryable.
  2. MusicXML: encode the altered pitch and an editorial accidental; level/footnote can explain the act. A witness-based apparatus requires additional conventions or external data.
  3. MuseScore: create the intended notation and visible editorial treatment. Preserve responsibility and evidence in an apparatus instead of expecting the bracket to carry them.
  4. MEI: retain the supplied accidental and attribution, and use choice or app when the original and alternative reading must both remain available.
KRN / VHV convention
**kern
*clefG2
4f#i
*-
!!!RDF**kern: i = editorial accidental, bracket

Small original example. The declaration gives i its meaning; responsibility is still absent.

MusicXML note fragment
<note>
  <pitch><step>F</step><alter>1</alter><octave>4</octave></pitch>
  <duration>1</duration>
  <type>quarter</type>
  <accidental editorial="yes" bracket="yes">sharp</accidental>
</note>

Fragment only: assumes divisions=1 and a surrounding part/measure. It encodes editorial appearance but not a full apparatus.

Editorial accidentals / musica fictaSic, interpretation and interventionResponsibility for individual interventionsMultiple witnesses and alternative readings
Worked comparison

Two rhythms on one stave

Voice identity is separate from chord membership and stem direction.

Take one 4/4 bar with a whole-note bass and four quarter notes above it. The sustained bass and moving line must retain independent durations and voice identity.

  1. KRN: split one spine into subspines. A dot in the sustained branch is a null token, not a rest or a repeated attack.
  2. MusicXML: encode one voice, move the cursor back four quarter-note units, then encode the other voice on the same staff.
  3. MuseScore: use separate voice slots, usually 1 and 2. Flipping a stem is insufficient.
  4. MEI: use two layers in a staff. Independent durations belong to those layers rather than one uniform-duration chord.
KRN split-spine sketch
**kern
*clefG2
*M4/4
*^
1c	4g
.	4a
.	4b
.	4cc
*v	*v
==
*-

Original sketch using literal tabs. VHV staff/voice rendering is a consumer convention; this example was not run through a music renderer.

MEI staff fragment
<staff n="1">
  <layer n="1">
    <note pname="g" oct="4" dur="4"/>
    <note pname="a" oct="4" dur="4"/>
    <note pname="b" oct="4" dur="4"/>
    <note pname="c" oct="5" dur="4"/>
  </layer>
  <layer n="2">
    <note pname="c" oct="4" dur="1"/>
  </layer>
</staff>

Fragment only. Supply the MEI namespace, score definition and enclosing measure/document.

Two independent voices on one staveMore than four independent voices per staveSimultaneous notes of unequal durationCross-staff notes and beams
Worked comparison

3/4 against 4/4, at the same pulse

Independent bar boundaries, not just different printed signatures.

On a common quarter-note timeline, the 3/4 part has boundaries at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12; the 4/4 part at 0, 4, 8, 12. Their first common endpoint is 12. Contrast this with differently written metres whose entire bars are stretched to the same duration.

3/44/40123456789101112
Elapsed quarter notes; shared pulse; common boundary at 12
  1. KRN/VHV: use the union of boundary times, with invisible bar markers in the staff that does not actually start a new bar. Count local measures independently.
  2. MusicXML: partwise non-controlling measures are designed for non-aligned left boundaries. Test whether the destination preserves them or forces a shared bar grid.
  3. MuseScore: local signatures rescale to the global bar span. A common-grid workaround can produce the picture, but it changes structural measures and may affect numbering, rests, repeats and export.
  4. MEI: preserve non-controlling barlines in a suitable part-oriented or unmeasured organisation. Do not assume that marking an ordinary shared measure as non-controlling automatically creates independent local bar containers. On a measure, MEI control describes the right boundary; MusicXML non-controlling describes the left.
Simultaneous bars of differing lengthsDifferent metres over a shared bar spanIndependent simultaneous tempiUnmeasured or unbarred music

Scope, evidence and reproducibility

The comparison focuses on symbolic music representation, with light treatment of shared basics. Research date: 2026-11-06.

  • KRN means Humdrum **kern, not every representation that can inhabit a Humdrum file. Adjacent representations and VHV conventions are labelled.
  • MusicXML means the published 4.0 specification; a receiving application may implement much less.
  • MuseScore 4 means the native MSCZ/MSCX project and the application workflows documented for the 4.x family. Exact release differences are retained where known. This is not a frozen source-code audit of one build.
  • MEI means 5.1 across the full framework; MEI Basic and repertoire-specific customizations can exclude features.
  • Direct is not a quality score or a promise of render/playback/import support. No format is assigned an overall winner.
  • All capability assessments are documentation-based or explicitly inferred/unverified. No music-format round-trip, playback or converter tests were run. HTML/data checks are a separate validation activity.
  • Blank or absent common basics are deliberate: this comparison prioritises distinctions, failure modes and modelling choices.
  • Sources are primary specifications, maintainer documentation or official application handbooks. Live pages may change; accessed dates are recorded.

Evidence labels

Documented
The cited primary documentation states the mechanism or limitation. This does not mean it was empirically tested.
Inference
An author judgement or proposed workflow derived from the cited model; not an explicit guarantee by the specification or vendor.
Unverified
The precise capability was not established. A related source defines the context rather than proving support or absence.

Coverage limits

Broad rather than exhaustive. Specialist non-Western notations, electroacoustic spatial scores, braille conversion and full DAW/MIDI 2.0 workflows are outside the detailed matrix. No numerical benchmarks or converter league table are claimed.

A reusable verification plan

These tests are specified, not executed. Record the exporter/importer build, settings, input and output checksums. Check event timing, source/editorial semantics, appearance and playback separately. A clean opening or a schema-valid file is not sufficient.

FixtureAcceptance conditionStatus
Editorial sharp with a responsible editorPreserve pitch, editorial status, enclosure, attribution and source reading independently.Not run
Whole-note bass against four upper quarter notesPreserve both onsets and durations, one staff and two independent voices.Not run
Five concurrent lines on one staffIdentify whether the target rejects, splits, merges or discards a voice.Not run
3/4 against 4/4 for 12 quarter notesLocal boundaries remain 0/3/6/9/12 and 0/4/8/12 with the same quarter-note pulse.Not run
18/16 against 3/4 with common bar spanDistinguish visual duration from performed ratio.Not run
Nested tuplet crossing a barlinePreserve durations, nesting and bracket endpoints separately.Not run
Transposing instrument with a courtesy microtonal accidentalCheck written spelling, sounding pitch, glyph and courtesy status.Not run
Shared-stem chord split over two stavesCheck note ownership, displayed staff, stems and beams.Not run
Two witness readings, one supplied note and one illegible noteDo not flatten alternatives into simultaneous events or turn a gap into a rest.Not run
A note linked to a manuscript image regionPreserve the image URI, region coordinates and durable note identity.Not run
Voice-specific dynamics with pedal and grace notesCheck target voice, controller behaviour and realised grace timing independently.Not run
Linked parts with individual layout changesCompare native linkage, part inclusion, page breaks and full-score consistency.Not run

Maintaining this report (access to underpinning data files required)

Edit comparison.json and run python3 build.py. The script validates identifiers, references and required fields, then embeds the data in this standalone HTML. It uses only Python’s standard library. The source package includes the template, a JSON Schema and a focused verification script.

JSON was chosen over YAML to avoid parser dependencies and implicit typing surprises. Capability, evidence, profile and empirical-test status are separate fields. Filters do not treat a workaround as direct semantic support.

124 primary sources

Numbered references in cells link directly to the specification or maintainer documentation. Related documentation accompanying an “Unverified” cell supplies context; it is not evidence of a negative claim.

Ref.DocumentAccessed
[1]Humdrum Guide, chapter 2: Representing Music Using **kernhttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch02/2026-11-06
[2]KRN: Humdrum Representation for Pitch Centshttps://www.humdrum.org/Humdrum/representations/cents.rep.html2026-11-06
[3]Humdrum **kern representationhttps://www.humdrum.org/Humdrum/representations/kern.rep.html2026-11-06
[4]Humdrum — Chapter 28https://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch28/2026-11-06
[5]VHV: editorial accidentalshttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/graphic/pitch/2026-11-06
[6]VHV: figured basshttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/figured_bass/2026-11-06
[7]KRN: Humdrum Representation for Frequencyhttps://www.humdrum.org/Humdrum/representations/freq.rep.html2026-11-06
[8]Humdrum — Chapter 18https://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch18/2026-11-06
[9]Humdrum Toolkit User Guidehttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/2026-11-06
[10]Humdrum — Humdrum Representation for Functional Harmonyhttps://www.humdrum.org/Humdrum/representations/harm.rep.html2026-11-06
[11]Humdrum — Chapter 27https://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch27/2026-11-06
[12]VHV: **mens notationhttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/mens/2026-11-06
[13]Humdrum: MIDI output toolshttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch07/2026-11-06
[14]Humdrum Guide, chapter 6: Representing Music Using **kern IIhttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch06/2026-11-06
[15]VHV: percussionhttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/percussion/2026-11-06
[16]VHV meter filter: polymeter examplehttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/filter/meter/2026-11-06
[17]Humdrum — Reference Recordshttps://www.humdrum.org/reference-records/2026-11-06
[18]Humdrum — Chapter 20https://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch20/2026-11-06
[19]Humdrum — Chapter 23https://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch23/2026-11-06
[20]Humdrum: Sound and Spectrahttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch36/2026-11-06
[21]VHV: encoding, accidentals and barlineshttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/getting_started/2026-11-06
[22]Humdrum Guide, chapter 5: The Humdrum Syntaxhttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch05/2026-11-06
[23]VHV: system decoratinghttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/system/2026-11-06
[24]VHV: time signatureshttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/timesig/2026-11-06
[25]Humdrum — Transposing partshttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/transposing/2026-11-06
[26]VHV: tuplet stylinghttps://doc.verovio.humdrum.org/humdrum/tuplets/2026-11-06
[27]Humdrum: Trouble-Shootinghttps://www.humdrum.org/guide/ch39/2026-11-06
[28]MEI 5.1 — <accid>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/accid.html2026-11-06
[29]MEI 5.1 — 10 Analysis Markup and Harmonieshttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/analysisharm.html2026-11-06
[30]MEI 5.1 — <annot>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/annot.html2026-11-06
[31]MEI 5.1 — <app>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/app.html2026-11-06
[32]MEI 5.1: barLinehttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/barLine.html2026-11-06
[33]MEI: <beamSpan>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/beamSpan.html2026-11-06
[34]MEI 5.1 — <choice>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/choice.html2026-11-06
[35]MEI 5.1 — <chord>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/chord.html2026-11-06
[36]MEI 5.1: Common Music Notationhttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/cmn.html2026-11-06
[37]MEI: <dynam>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/dynam.html2026-11-06
[38]MEI 5.1: Scholarly Editinghttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/scholarlyediting.html2026-11-06
[39]MEI 5.1: Facsimiles and Recordingshttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/facsimilesrecordings.html2026-11-06
[40]MEI 5.1: Integration with Other Standardshttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/integration.html2026-11-06
[41]MEI 5.1 — 1 Introduction to MEIhttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/introduction.html2026-11-06
[42]MEI 5.1 — 13 Linking Datahttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/linkingdata.html2026-11-06
[43]MEI 5.1 — 8 Lyrics and Performance Directionshttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/lyricsperfdir.html2026-11-06
[44]MEI 5.1 — 5 Repertoire: Mensural Notationhttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/mensural.html2026-11-06
[45]MEI 5.1 — 3 Metadata in MEIhttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/metadata.html2026-11-06
[46]MEI 5.1: metrical conformancehttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/attribute-classes/att.meterConformance.bar.html2026-11-06
[47]MEI 5.1 — 6 Repertoire: Neume Notationhttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/neumes.html2026-11-06
[48]MEI 5.1: notehttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/note.html2026-11-06
[49]MEI: <phrase>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/phrase.html2026-11-06
[50]MEI 5.1 schemas and profileshttps://music-encoding.org/resources/schemas.html2026-11-06
[51]MEI 5.1: Shared Conceptshttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/shared.html2026-11-06
[52]MEI 5.1 — <staffDef>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/staffDef.html2026-11-06
[53]MEI 5.1 — <supplied>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/supplied.html2026-11-06
[54]MEI 5.1 — <symbolDef>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/symbolDef.html2026-11-06
[55]MEI 5.1 — 7 Repertoire: String Tablaturehttps://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/content/tablature.html2026-11-06
[56]MEI 5.1 — <tupletSpan>https://music-encoding.org/guidelines/v5/elements/tupletSpan.html2026-11-06
[57]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Beamshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/rhythm-meter-and-measures/beams.md2026-11-06
[58]MS: Chord symbolshttps://handbook.musescore.org/text/chord-symbols.md2026-11-06
[59]MuseScore Studio: command-line usagehttps://handbook.musescore.org/appendix/command-line-usage.md2026-11-06
[60]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Cross-staff notationhttps://handbook.musescore.org/idiomatic-notation/keyboard/cross-staff-notation.md2026-11-06
[61]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Dynamics and hairpinshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/expressive-markings/dynamics-and-hairpins.md2026-11-06
[62]MuseScore Studio Handbook — File exporthttps://handbook.musescore.org/file-management/file-export.md2026-11-06
[63]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Figured basshttps://handbook.musescore.org/text/figured-bass.md2026-11-06
[64]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Music fontshttps://handbook.musescore.org/appendix/music-fonts.md2026-11-06
[65]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Grace noteshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/expressive-markings/grace-notes.md2026-11-06
[66]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Showing staves only where neededhttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/instruments-staves-and-systems/showing-staves-only-where-needed.md2026-11-06
[67]MuseScore Studio: pickup and non-metered measureshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/rhythm-meter-and-measures/pickup-and-non-metered-measures.md2026-11-06
[68]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Key signatureshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/pitch/key-signatures.md2026-11-06
[69]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Systems and horizontal spacinghttps://handbook.musescore.org/formatting/systems-and-horizontal-spacing.md2026-11-06
[70]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Lyricshttps://handbook.musescore.org/text/lyrics.md2026-11-06
[71]MuseScore Studio: mensural notationhttps://handbook.musescore.org/alternative-notation/mensural-notation-and-mensurstrich.md2026-11-06
[72]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Mixerhttps://handbook.musescore.org/sound-and-playback/mixer.md2026-11-06
[73]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Noteheadshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/pitch/noteheads.md2026-11-06
[74]MS: Ornamentshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/expressive-markings/ornaments.md2026-11-06
[75]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Partshttps://handbook.musescore.org/basics/parts.md2026-11-06
[76]MS: Pedalhttps://handbook.musescore.org/idiomatic-notation/keyboard/pedal.md2026-11-06
[77]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Project propertieshttps://handbook.musescore.org/file-management/project-properties.md2026-11-06
[78]MuseScore Studio 4.6 release announcementhttps://musescore.org/en/4.62026-11-06
[79]MuseScore Studio: opening and savinghttps://handbook.musescore.org/file-management/opening-and-saving-scores.md2026-11-06
[80]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Other symbolshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/expressive-markings/other-symbols.md2026-11-06
[81]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Creating a tablature staffhttps://handbook.musescore.org/idiomatic-notation/guitar/creating-a-tablature-staff.md2026-11-06
[82]MuseScore Studio: time signatureshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/rhythm-meter-and-measures/time-signatures.md2026-11-06
[83]MS: Transpositionhttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/pitch/transposition.md2026-11-06
[84]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Alternate string tuningshttps://handbook.musescore.org/idiomatic-notation/guitar/alternate-string-tunings.md2026-11-06
[85]MuseScore Studio: tupletshttps://handbook.musescore.org/notation/rhythm-meter-and-measures/tuplets.md2026-11-06
[86]MuseScore version and native file-version tablehttps://musescore.org/sr/handbook/developers-handbook/references/version-information2026-11-06
[87]MuseScore Studio: multiple voiceshttps://handbook.musescore.org/basics/working-with-multiple-voices.md2026-11-06
[88]MuseScore Studio Handbook — Working with MusicXML fileshttps://handbook.musescore.org/file-management/working-with-musicxml-files.md2026-11-06
[89]MusicXML 4.0: accidentalhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/accidental/2026-11-06
[90]MusicXML 4.0 — The <alter> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/alter/2026-11-06
[91]MusicXML 4.0 — The <backup> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/backup/2026-11-06
[92]MusicXML notation and soundhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/tutorial/notation-basics/2026-11-06
[93]MusicXML 4.0 — The <beam> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/beam/2026-11-06
[94]MusicXML 4.0 — The <bookmark> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/bookmark/2026-11-06
[95]MusicXML 4.0 — The <chord> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/chord/2026-11-06
[96]MusicXML 4.0 — The <defaults> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/defaults/2026-11-06
[97]MusicXML 4.0 — The <figured-bass> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/figured-bass/2026-11-06
[98]MusicXML 4.0: footnotehttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/footnote/2026-11-06
[99]MX: The <frame> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/frame/2026-11-06
[100]MusicXML 4.0 — The <grace> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/grace/2026-11-06
[101]MusicXML 4.0 — The <grouping> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/grouping/2026-11-06
[102]MusicXML 4.0 — The <harmony> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/harmony/2026-11-06
[103]MusicXML 4.0 — The <identification> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/identification/2026-11-06
[104]MX: The <key> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/key/2026-11-06
[105]MusicXML 4.0: levelhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/level/2026-11-06
[106]MusicXML 4.0 — The <link> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/link/2026-11-06
[107]MusicXML 4.0 — The <lyric> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/lyric/2026-11-06
[108]MusicXML 4.0: partwise measurehttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/measure-partwise/2026-11-06
[109]MusicXML 4.0: compressed MXL fileshttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/tutorial/compressed-mxl-files/2026-11-06
[110]MusicXML 4.0: notehttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/note/2026-11-06
[111]MusicXML 4.0 — The <other-notation> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/other-notation/2026-11-06
[112]MusicXML 4.0 — The <play> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/play/2026-11-06
[113]MusicXML 4.0 — The <print> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/print/2026-11-06
[114]MusicXML 4.0 XSDhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/listings/musicxml.xsd/2026-11-06
[115]MusicXML 4.0 — The <scordatura> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/scordatura/2026-11-06
[116]MusicXML 4.0 — The <sound> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/sound/2026-11-06
[117]MusicXML 4.0 specificationhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/2026-11-06
[118]MusicXML 4.0 — The <staff-details> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/staff-details/2026-11-06
[119]MusicXML 4.0 — The <tied> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/tied/2026-11-06
[120]MusicXML 4.0: timehttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/time/2026-11-06
[121]MusicXML 4.0 — The <transpose> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/transpose/2026-11-06
[122]MusicXML 4.0 — The <tuplet> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/tuplet/2026-11-06
[123]MusicXML 4.0 — The <unpitched> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/unpitched/2026-11-06
[124]MusicXML 4.0 — The <voice> elementhttps://www.w3.org/2021/06/musicxml40/musicxml-reference/elements/voice/2026-11-06